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Exchangeable K (meq/100g of soil) is potassium adsorbed onto clay particles and organic matter and accounts for 1-2% of total soil K. Potassium in soil solution is the most readily available form of K for plants to absorb.

Available phosphorus (mg/kg) is found in a biogeochemical cycle in the upper soil profile, while phosphorus found at lower depths is primarily involved in geochemical reactions with secondary minerals. Plant growth depends on the rapid root uptake of phosphorus released from dead organic matter in the biochemical cycle. Phosphorus in general, is limited in supply for plant growth.

Total nitrogen (N, mg/g) is the sum of nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2), organic nitrogen and ammonia (all expressed as N). Analysis and quantification of N is used to estimate nitrogen availability from the natural decay of organic materials.

Organic matter (%) is the most important factor in soil. It is the necessary source of energy for the beneficial micro-organisms of the soil. These microorganisms solubilize non-digestible inorganic nutrients into digestible forms for plants. This means that all the necessary nutrients can be absorbed and used by the plants.

Soil depth is defined as the space for root growth, and the volume where plants meet their water and nutrient needs.

Soil grain size is a sum of the proportions of sand, silt and clay content. It is a physical property that affects biophysical characteristics such as water capacity, fertility status, permeability, erodibility, etc.

Soil hydromorphology refers to how quickly excess water leaves the soil due to runoff or internal drainage. It affects plant growth and available water.

Class Description
Very well drained soils (A) They are characterized by the absence of iron outcrops and manganese compounds throughout the depth of the soil section. Brownish colors predominate, the soil usually has high hydraulic conductivity and water seeps into its deeper layers. The soil remains wet only during the wet season of the year (duration of wet months). No draining required.
Well-drained soils (B) They are characterized by the presence of iron exudates and manganese compounds or gray exudates at a depth between 100 and 150 cm from the soil surface. Brown colors prevail throughout the depth of the soil section. During the growing season of plants these soils are not wet enough for a long period of time to adversely affect their growth. No draining required.
Moderately drained soils (C) They are characterized by the presence of iron exudates and manganese compounds or gray exudates at a depth between 50 and 100 cm from the soil surface. In some soils of this class, there may be outcrops at a depth of less than 50 cm, but at a rate of less than 2%. The underground water table in wet months rises and can adversely affect perennial crops. These soils require drainage for sensitive crops.
Imperfectly drained soils (D) They are characterized by the presence of iron outcrops and manganese compounds or some reducing sites at a depth between 30 and 50 cm from the soil surface. The percentage of eruptions in this layer is less than 20%. These soils are characterized by high humidity for a long period of the year near the surface, with the result that spring crops are adversely affected. For perennial crops, drainage is required.
Poorly drained soils (E) They are characterized by the presence of iron and manganese outcrops at a depth of less than 30 cm from the soil surface, while the presence of iron and manganese outcrops or reducing sites includes a percentage of 20-50% at a depth between 30 and 50 cm from the soil surface. These lands have a high groundwater table during the wet months of the year. For growing perennials or early spring crops, drainage is required.
Badly drained soils (F) Soils with a permanent groundwater table at a depth usually greater than 75 cm from the soil surface. If reducing conditions prevail at a rate greater than 50% at a depth of 75-150 cm, the soil is characterized by F hydromorphy. If reducing conditions prevail at a depth of less than 75 cm, the soil is characterized by G hydromorphy. If there is a seasonal variation of the water table, the hydromorphy class can be characterized in combination with one of the previous classes (eg E/F, E/G etc.). These soils are wet to the surface most of the year, so that the normal growth of most crops is prevented. Drainage is definitely required.

They refer to the content of stones and gravels present in the soil. They affect soil erosion and soil moisture retention.

Slope refers to how steep the ground surface is. It affects erosion, irrigation, the use of agricultural machinery.

It sets out measures to protect soils related to degradation.

Class Description
None No erosion
Light Soils that have lost some of the A horizon but on average less than 25% of the original A horizon. Indications are (a) fewer rills, (b) accumulation of material at the base of a slope or in a hollow, (c) scattered patches where the crop horizon contains material from the underlying horizon.
Moderate Soils that have lost an average of 25-75% of the original A horizon. The surface layer consists of a mixture of materials from the A horizon and the underlying horizon. In some areas there can be a complex situation from spots without any erosion to spots where the entire A horizon has been removed. Where the A horizon is quite thick, little or no mixing of A horizon materials with the substrate has taken place.
Strong Soils that have lost all of the A horizon and some of the deeper horizons over the greater extent. The original soil can only be identified in individual spots.
Very strong Soils that have lost all of the A horizon and some or all of the deeper horizons over the greater extent. The original soil can only be identified in individual spots. A complex system of grooves is observed on the surface.

The presence of carbonates is determined according to the content and depth of the soil detected. Their detection is done indirectly by reacting the soil with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Class Description
0 Absence of reaction throughout the depth of the soil section.
1 Absence of reaction in section 0-30 cm (section A). while there is a reaction in the section 30-75 cm (section B) and/or in the soil section 75-150 cm (section C).
2 Weak reaction in the surface horizon, section A, while the reaction in the lower sections is not taken into account.
3 Strong reaction on the surface, while the reaction on the other sections is not taken into account.

By parent material we mean the material from which, through the processes of disintegration, the soil arises.

The soil classification system used is that of the International Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB 2015).

The assessment of landslide risk zones is based on the geomorphometric characteristics of the respective area, such as the slope of the land and the types of landforms, in terms of large land slopes and steep slopes, which, in relation to the proximity to the road network, zones of occurrence of landslide phenomena were highlighted.

The flood risk assessment is based on the geomorphometric characteristics extracted from the DEM such as land slope and landform types, in terms of low altitude and flat surfaces, where, in relation to the hydrographic network, zones exposed to flooding phenomena were highlighted.

The risk assessment from tectonic phenomena was based on morphotectonic features extracted from the DEM such as the range index of the topographic relief (Ar). The topographic relief range index is the maximum elevation difference within 1 km2 and is useful for evaluating active tectonics to determine recent vertical displacements. Higher index values highlight vertical displacements of raised or subsided land surfaces, while areas without significant landscape deformation are highlighted by low index values.

Building footprints have been extracted from Bing Maps satellite imagery between 2014 and 2023, including Maxar and Airbus satellite imagery. Building extraction consists of two steps: i) semantic segmentation/identification of building pixels in an aerial image using deep neural networks and ii) polygonization/conversion of pixel detections as buildings to polygons. These buildings as structures and infrastructures of the urban fabric were used to assess the risk based on their proximity to biodiversity. Zones close to buildings are of high risk for biodiversity, while zones at a safe distance from buildings are of low risk.

The relief fragmentation index (Di) is the ratio between absolute relief and relative relief, indicating the degree of fragmentation or vertical erosion. It is a useful indicator for the study of soil, dynamics and stages of landscape evolution, especially the interaction between erosion and deposition. Low index values indicate a lack of vertical fragmentation/erosion and therefore flat surface dominance, while high values of the index indicate highly fragmented terrain with a vertical extent of soil slope.

The drainage density index (Dd) determines the total length of the stream, relative to the basin area. The index provides evaluation information on surface runoff potential, degree of landscape dissection, rock permeability, and erosion resistance. The index is influenced by factors such as terrain slope and relative relief: low values are associated with low relief, permeable surface material and terrain with long ridges. High index values indicate high relief, impervious surface material and fragmented soil.

The water flow frequency index (Fu) assesses the total number of water flow segments within a basin area. Index values indicate the degree of steepness of the terrain, permeability of geological formations and surface runoff. High index values are associated with impermeable surface material, high relief, and low water infiltration capacity, while low values indicate permeable surface material, low relief, and high water infiltration capacity. The high values of the index may be indicative of areas with a rough hydrographic network and with the deformation of the hydrographic network being the result of neotectonic forces.

The topographic moisture index (TWI) assesses soil moisture and surface saturation as affected by changes in soil slope gradient. Low values of the index can identify areas that indicate: i) V-shaped valleys characterized by high incision. ii) high relief where there is less moisture accumulation and iii) longitudinal ridges. Higher values of the index can highlight areas consisting of: i) low-sloping land surface and higher moisture accumulation, or ii) alluvial deposits. The TWI index is useful for evaluating the distribution of surface water on the Earth's surface due to topographic changes and landscape deformation.

The above geomorphometric indices and landforms were used in the modeling of a multi-criteria decision analysis system (MCDA) to highlight the area's geomorphology. A classification of these indices was performed using the Interactive Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique (ISODATA) algorithm. The histogram curve clustering approach revealed 8 main geomorphometric classes as soil classification units. These classes provide a detailed overview of the geomorphological, hydrological and morphotectonic properties of the region.

Class Description
1 Coastal soils, alluvial deposits and low-elevation plains (average: 108 m), with gentle terrain slopes (average: 7.80 degrees), low degree of landscape deformation, high moisture accumulation, low degree of dissection or vertical erosion, very low roughness.
2 Plains and valleys with an average elevation of 208 m, moderate slopes (average: 17 degrees), very low degree of dissection or vertical erosion, permeable surface material, high water infiltration capacity, moderate soil roughness.
3 Hillsides and valley slopes with an average elevation of 371 m, gentle slopes (average: 10 degrees), moderate degree of dissection or vertical erosion, low ground roughness.
4 Hillsides and valley slopes with medium altitudes (average: 493 m altitude), steep slopes (average: 21 degrees), high degree of landscape deformation, low degree of dissection or vertical erosion, high terrain roughness.
5 Intermediate plateaus and plains (average: 617 m altitude), gentle terrain slopes (average: 11 degrees), high moisture accumulation, low degree of landscape deformation, high degree of dissection or vertical erosion, impermeable surface material, low water infiltration capacity, low ground roughness.
6 Hillsides and valley slopes with medium to high elevations (average: 838 m elevation), steep slopes (average: 22 degrees), presence of V-shaped valleys characterized by high incision, low moisture accumulation and longitudinal ridges, moderate grade dissection or vertical erosion, high ground roughness.
7 Areas with an average elevation of 1188 m, steep slopes (average: 20 degrees), high degree of landscape deformation, presence of V-shaped valleys, low moisture accumulation and longitudinal ridges, high degree of dissection or vertical erosion, high soil roughness.
8 Areas with maximum elevations (average: 1745 m altitude), steep slopes (average: 24 degrees), high degree of landscape deformation, presence of V-shaped valleys, low levels of moisture accumulation and longitudinal ridges, very high degree of dissection or vertical erosion, maximum ground roughness.

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